Wheat
Wheat is a type of cereal, a grass cultivated for its grain in temperate regions around the globe. One of the top five staple foods produced in the world, it accounts for about 20% of the calories consumed by humans.
As would be expected with such an important crop, wheat cultivation was established in the Pacific Northwest early on. That said, every region of the world is different, and we are better at growing some types of wheat than others.
Cultivated wheat was domesticated from wild grasses in the genus Triticum early in human history.
The most important difference between domesticated and wild wheat is that domesticated wheat depends on human interaction to survive. Unlike wild wheat, the grains on domesticated wheat do not naturally disperse but remain attached to the ear of wheat, which makes them easier for us to harvest. In addition, cultivated wheat tends to have larger grains.
Because these came about both through artificial and natural selection, the taxonomy of wheat is very complex and somewhat disputed. For our purposes, I’m following more recent gene-based taxonomy, and I will only be focusing on domesticated wheat species and their uses.
Various species and subspecies were developed over the course of history, but bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) won out as the main species cultivated today, with durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum) coming in at a distant second place. Other species are only cultivated in very small amounts.
In the Pacific Northwest
Wheat is very well-adapted to our region and is grown extensively in the Inland Northwest.
Soft white wheat, hard red spring wheat, and hard red winter wheat varieties are grown in large quantities. In addition, small-scale growers produce minor varieties of wheat such as emmer, einkorn, and spelt. We’re a wheat region through and through.
Washington is one of the top producers of wheat in the country; production is centered around the hilly Palouse region in the Columbia Basin area.
At least three-quarters of the wheat produced in our region is soft white wheat, which has a lower protein content and weaker gluten. Our production is similar to that of Europe, which also primarily grows soft wheat.
Durum production is currently absent from our region, though it appears, according to WSU and OSU studies, that durum could be produced in the Pacific Northwest. The only real obstacle it faces is that durum is not genetically resistant to fungal diseases and can be badly affected in wet years. Otherwise, durum should be well-adapted to the Inland Northwest, especially to drier parts of the region. Unfortunately, due to market and infrastructure constraints, there has been little interest in its production so far.
In culinary terms, the wheat we grow is especially suitable for making Western European breads and pastries as well as Japanese-style noodles and eastern Asian baked goods on a large scale.
That said, the variety of wheat species we can grow also means we have local access to many wheat types and we can ultimately produce a wide range of baked goods and wheat-based products.
Species
Wheats
T. aestivum species
Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum)
Club wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. compactum)
Spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta)
T. turgidum species
Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum)
Emmer wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccum)
Khorasan wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. turanicum)
Other species
Einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum)
Triticale (× Triticosecale)
Bread wheat
By far the most widely grown species today is bread wheat, accounting for about 95% of the wheat cultivated in the world.
Also known as common wheat, Triticum aestivum is a hybrid that formed from cultivated emmer wheat and a wild goatgrass. Common wheat is a free-threshing species with both awned and awnless forms. Modern varieties of common wheat are almost all semi-dwarf varieties that grow shorter than older varieties; this prevents lodging, which is when ear stalks fall over and rot on the ground.
Anatomy of wheat seeds
Hulls: the hull of a seed is a tough, inedible layer that surrounds the seed. The hull is the shell that protects the seed inside. There are hulled and free-threshing wheat species. Hulled wheat species have hulls that are difficult to separate from the seeds, unlike in free-threshing species. Most cultivated wheat is free-threshing.
Awns: awns are long, stiff bristles found on some wheat hulls. In wild species, awns help propagate the seeds by mechanically pushing them into the soil as the awn reacts to changes in humidity over the course of the day. The seeds basically plant themselves. In addition, they can also contribute to photosynthesis in dry climates. They have been found to be effective in increasing yields under dry or drought conditions but provide no advantage over awnless varieties in areas with sufficient water.
A common name for awns is “foxtails”, which are known for the harm they can cause dogs or other pets when they become lodged under their skin.
Germ, endosperm, and bran: grains are seeds that are composed of three parts: the germ, endosperm, and bran. The germ is the embryo of the seed from which a plant grows. The endosperm is the germ’s energy supply, made up primarily of starch. The bran is a tough, fibrous outer layer that protects the endosperm and germ. Whole grains include all three parts, whereas refined flour is ground from the endosperm only. Similarly, white rice is rice that has had the germ and bran removed.
Other cultivated wheat species
Durum wheat is the second-most cultivated form of wheat, after common wheat, making up about 5% of the world’s production. Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum) is an awned and free-threshing natural mutation of emmer wheat. The endosperm is yellow due to the presence of carotenoids; this is what pasta gets its color from. It is very well adapted to arid and semi-arid climates. Major producers include the Canada, Russia, the US, Mexico, and Mediterranean countries.
Club wheat is a subspecies of bread wheat bred for its lower protein content. Club wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. compactum) has smaller ears and prefers dry summers and low humidity. Its history is similar to that of common wheat. Club wheat is especially suitable for the Western United States, where it has been grown since Spanish colonization. Nearly all club wheat cultivated in the US today is grown in the Inland Northwest.
Einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum) was the first domesticated species of wheat, cultivated in the Fertile Crescent region around 8,000 BCE, subsequently spreading to Western Asia and Europe. Einkorn wheat is a hulled and awned species. It is currently only grown in limited quantities in mountainous areas of the Mediterranean; its popularity declined in the Bronze Age as it was supplanted by emmer wheat.
Emmer wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccum) is a type of hulled wheat with long awns that formed from wild einkorn wheat and a wild grass from a related genus known as goatgrasses (Aegilops). Emmer wheat is the basis of later cultivated wheat subspecies. It is now rarely cultivated and is mostly grown in mountainous areas of the Mediterranean and Europe. It offers the advantages of lower fertility requirements, providing good yields in poor soils, and resistance to fungal diseases in moist conditions. It appears to be a little less drought-tolerant than other types of wheat but is well-adapted to the Pacific Northwest.
Spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) is a hulled subspecies of common wheat that has been cultivated since approximately 5,000 BCE in the Black Sea region. It spread to Central Europe and became a staple grain in more northern areas such as Germany, Switzerland, and England during the Iron Age and remained an important grain in colder regions of Europe throughout the Middle Ages. It fell out of favor during the 20th century. Genever spirits are specifically distilled from spelt and the green immature grains, known as grünkern, are consumed in Germany.
A more recently introduced species also commercially marketed as Kamut, Khorasan wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. turanicum) is a natural hybrid of durum wheat and uncommon wheat species called Polish wheat. The grains of Khorasan wheat are nearly twice the size of modern-day wheat. The variety is even more drought-tolerant than durum, but does poorly with too much precipitation. Currently grown in similar areas as durum wheat (northern Great Plains).
Triticale (× Triticosecale) is a hybrid of wheat (Triticum) and rye (Secale). It was first developed in the late 1800s in Scotland and Germany to create a wheat-like grain with the disease tolerance and hardiness of rye. Early cultivation attempts suffered from poor yields and other issues, but newer hybrids have corrected many of these problems and triticale may yet be more widely adopted.
Cooking with wheat
Types of wheat
Although 95% of the wheat currently produced in the world is bread wheat, Triticum aestivum, there are countless varieties of the species with varying characteristics.
Some are more suitable for leavened breads, others are better for pastry or noodle-making. To navigate this, wheat varieties are often grouped into different classes.
Every country has its own way of grading and classifying their wheat. In the US, we have six classes of wheat. Five of the classes of wheat are for bread wheat, Triticum aestivum, and one is for durum wheat, Triticum turgidum ssp. durum.
The six classes are defined according the following characteristics: growing season, endosperm texture, and bran color.
Growing season refers to either winter or spring. Winter wheat is planted in fall and harvested in spring and summer. Spring wheat is planted in spring and harvested in late summer and fall. Which is one is planted has to do with local temperatures and climate. Most of the wheat grown in the Pacific Northwest is sown in winter.
Wheat grains have an endosperm texture that is either hard or soft. Soft wheat is more powdery than hard wheat, which is more granular. Hard wheat has a higher protein content and is better suited to applications that require strong gluten formation, such as yeast-risen breads. The Pacific Northwest produces primarily soft wheat.
The bran color simply refers to the color of the bran, either red or white.
Gluten in wheat flour
The protein content of wheat is composed primarily of a protein composite known as gluten. The related grains barley, rye, and oats also contain protein composites that are referred to as gluten, however, these are composed of similar but different proteins. An estimated 1% of the global population have an allergy to gluten.
In wheat, gluten is made up of gliadin and glutenin. When hydrated, these two proteins combine to provide elasticity and structure to dough.
The exact ratio of glutenin and gliadin that makes up the gluten content of a flour can vary greatly. When activated with water, gliadin forms a viscous, runny mass, whereas glutenin is highly elastic and resists deformation.
Flour is often categorized as “strong” or “weak”, with strong flour better suited to breadmaking and weak flours better suited to cakes and other applications that don’t require strong gluten formation. Many sources assume that strong flour is solely attributable to a higher quantity of gluten, but does not take into account the characteristics of the gluten. Two flours with the same amount of protein are not necessarily the same strength. An example of this is semolina flour, which is made from durum. Semolina is high in protein, but not a strong flour due to the higher gliadin ratio found in durum. A strong flour needs to have a higher ratio of glutenin to provide the elasticity required.
Protein and gluten content varies in wheat; high-gluten (strong) flour is used especially in yeast-leavened breads and Chinese-style noodles (e.g. ramen) that require a stronger structure, whereas low-gluten (weak) flour is used especially in pastries, fresh pasta, crackers, and Japanese-style noodles (e.g. udon). Durum flour is mainly used in making extruded and dried pasta, the style we’re all accustomed to buying packaged at the grocery store, as well as pasta and the cracked wheat “bulgur”.
Traditional recipes are often based around the use of a specific flour type, so it’s important to ensure that you’re using the right kind. A good example is the difference between New York-style pizza and Neapolitan pizza. In the US, most “pizza flour” is high in gluten, which works well for the New York-style pizza that was developed for it. On the other hand, Neapolitan pizza developed with European soft wheat, which is low in gluten. American pizza flour is won’t yield the same results.
US wheat classifications
Protein and gluten content varies in wheat; high-gluten flour is used especially in yeast-leavened breads and Chinese-style noodles (e.g. ramen) that require a stronger structure, whereas low-gluten flour is used especially in pastries, fresh pasta, crackers, and Japanese-style noodles (e.g. udon). Durum flour is mainly used in making extruded and dried pasta, the style we’re all accustomed to buying packaged at the grocery store, as well as pasta and the cracked wheat “bulgur”.
Traditional recipes are often based around the use of a specific flour type, so it’s important to ensure that you’re using the right kind. A good example is the difference between New York-style pizza and Neapolitan pizza. In the US, most “pizza flour” is high in gluten, which works well for the New York-style pizza that was developed for it. On the other hand, Neapolitan pizza developed with European soft wheat, which is low in gluten. American pizza flour is won’t yield the same results.
Hard red winter wheat: hard red winter wheat is the most important class of wheat in the United States, grown extensively throughout the northern, central and southern Great Plains, from Texas up into Canada. It is also grown in California and the Pacific Northwest. This kind of wheat has a protein content that ranges from 10 to 13% and strong gluten.
Hard red spring wheat: second in terms of production, hard red spring wheat is grown primarily in the northern Great Plains, especially in Montana, the Dakotas, and the Canadian Prairies. Smaller amounts are grown in the Pacific Northwest. It has a high protein content that ranges from 12 to 15% percent and strong gluten.
Soft red winter wheat: the third-largest class of wheat, this type of wheat is grown only in the eastern United States. It has a low protein content ranging from 8.5 to 10.5% and weak gluten.
Soft white wheat: soft white wheat is the wheat of the Pacific Northwest, though the majority is exported to Asia. Soft white wheat has a low protein content ranging from 8.5 to 10.5%. Soft white wheat includes club wheat, which has a very low protein content.
Durum: durum wheat is grown in the northern Great Plains and in the Southwest. Durum wheat is the hardest class of wheat and has a high protein content ranging from 12 to 15%. Durum wheat has a high protein content but its gluten is not very elastic, so it is not suitable for yeast-risen breads. Its main use is in extruded and dried pastas. Semolina is a flour made of coarsely-ground durum wheat. The green, immature grains, known as freekeh, are eaten in the Middle East.
Hard white wheat: this is the newest and smallest class of wheat in the United States. It is mainly grown in the central Great Plains and in California. Hard white wheat has a protein content that ranges from 10 to 14%.
The most important use for wheat is as a flour for making bread, flatbreads, pastries, and noodles.
Wheat flours
Whole-wheat flour: flour is mostly milled from the endosperm only; if the germ and bran is included, the result is whole-wheat flour.
Other wheat products
Wheat berries: whole grains can be cooked and eaten as a salad or porridge, or in soups and stews, similarly to barley grains. Wheat berries can be pearled or semi-pearled, in which case all or some of the bran is removed. “Farro” is a type of wheat berry (see note).
Cracked wheat: wheat berries that are ground into very coarse particles. “Bulgur” is a type of cracked wheat from the Middle East that is also parboiled and dried. Cracked wheat can be used similarly to wheat berries.
Rolled wheat: like oats, whole grains can be steamed and rolled, and used in the same manner.
Wheat starch: the starch in wheat can be separated and used similarly to cornstarch and other starches. It is mostly used in China and eastern Asia for dumplings and noodles.
Seitan: seitan, or wheat gluten, is made by washing the starch out of flour to separate the gluten. The resulting gluten mass is then cooked. Dating back to the 6th century in China, it has remained a popular meat substitute due to its texture.
Beer: wheat beer, traditional in Germany and Belgium, is brewed with a larger proportion of wheat to other grains.
Spirits: wheat is commonly used to distill grain spirits such as vodka, gin and genever, and in smaller quantities, whiskey.
Wheat sauce: wheat can be fermented and made into a sauce like soy sauce. Wheat sauce is sweeter and lighter than soy sauce. As far as I’m currently aware, it’s only produced in small quantities in Japan.
Wheat germ oil: an uncommon culinary product, the germ can be pressed for oil. It is highly perishable and has a low smoke point.
About “farro”
In current marketing, “farro” is used as a catch-all term for various wheat berries. It is, however, an Italian term that refers to three species of hulled wheat: spelt, emmer, and einkorn. In Italy, “farro grande” is spelt, “farro medio” is emmer, and “farro piccolo” is einkorn. Most farro is emmer wheat. Like other wheat berries, farro can be either whole grain, semi-pearled, or pearled (in which case, the bran is removed).
